The Stages of Chișinău's Formation: From Burebista to the Russian Empire

Introduction

Chișinău, located at the intersection of important trade routes, has always been a strategic place. The Bâc River, on whose banks the city grew, contributed to the development of trade and cultural exchanges. The territory of Chișinău absorbed influences from various eras and peoples, which is reflected in its development from ancient times to the beginning of the 20th century.

1. The Reign of Burebista (1st Century BC)

During the reign of Burebista, fortifications were built in the Chișinău area to defend the Dacian state. Military camps and castra were established, which influenced the later formation of settlements. Roman influence also left traces in the form of fortifications and planning, which became part of the local architecture.

2. The Gothic Influence (4th–5th Centuries AD)

In the 4th–5th centuries, the region came under Gothic influence, who brought their culture and architecture. Gothic fortified settlements became part of the local infrastructure. The Goths adapted Roman architecture to their needs, which was reflected in the planning and fortification of settlements. This period served as a bridge between the Roman era and the arrival of the Slavs.

3. The Slavs and Avars (6th–8th Centuries AD)

Starting in the 6th century, the region was colonized by Slavic tribes, who used the legacy of earlier cultures. The Slavs reinforced existing structures and created their own craft and defensive centers. During this period, the influence of the Avars, who controlled the region and contributed to the development of local infrastructure, was also felt.

4. The 9th–12th Centuries AD

In the 9th–12th centuries, Slavic-Bulgarian and Kievan settlements began to appear on the territory of present-day Moldova. Trade with Byzantium and other Slavic centers contributed to the development of the region. Fortified settlements along the Bâc River became important commercial points.

5. The Golden Horde Period (13th–14th Centuries)

In the 13th–14th centuries, the region came under the rule of the Golden Horde. The Tatars used the existing fortifications, such as the Dacian and Gothic fortresses, to defend and control the territory. During this period, caravanserais and mosques also appeared, attesting to the cultural diversity and importance of the trade routes in the region.

6. The Formation of the Principality of Moldova (15th–17th Centuries)

The first mention of Chișinău dates back to 1436, when the settlement became an important strategic point in the Principality of Moldova. Gradually, Chișinău was fortified, with fortresses and houses of local leaders being built here. The city played an important role as a commercial center and military base.

7. The 17th Century: Consolidation of Chișinău as a Commercial and Craft Center

In the 17th century, Chișinău became a center of craft production and trade. Craft neighborhoods developed, shops appeared, and the streets were fortified for defense. The traveler Evliya Çelebi described these neighborhoods as lively and diverse.

8. Integration into the Russian Empire (19th Century)

After the annexation of Bessarabia by the Russian Empire in 1812, Chișinău became the administrative center of the region. In 1817, a general plan was developed, laying the foundation for the city's development. Active restructuring began: new streets and administrative buildings were constructed, and the infrastructure was modernized, contributing to the city's growth.

9. Chișinău in the Late 19th — Early 20th Century

The late 19th — early 20th century was a period of growth for Chișinău. During this time, the city developed rapidly, with new public buildings and squares appearing, contributing to the formation of the modern appearance of the city.

Conclusion

The history of Chișinău is the history of many eras and cultures, each of which contributed to the development of the city. Chișinău has traveled the path from a small settlement to an important center, and understanding its history helps to better appreciate its contemporary significance.

The History of Chișinău: From the Reign of Burebista to the Influence of the Goths

The Reign of Burebista (1st century BC)

Burebista, who ruled in the 1st century BC, was one of the most powerful leaders of the Geto-Dacians. Under his reign, the Dacian state reached its greatest expansion and power. During his time, significant changes took place in the territory where Chișinău is now located, influencing the development of settlements in the region.

1. Formation of the Dacian State

Burebista united the disparate Dacian tribes, creating a strong and centralized state that spanned from the Carpathians to the Balkans and from the Black Sea to the Tisza River. This political consolidation allowed for strengthened defense and control over key trade routes that passed through the region. The geographical position of future Chișinău, on the northern border of Dacia, made it an important part of the defensive system that protected Burebista's state from Scythian attacks and other northern nomads.

2. Military Fortifications and Defensive Structures

One of Burebista's key achievements was the creation of a system of defensive fortifications. In the territory where future Chișinău was located and in neighboring areas such as Orheiul Vechi, fortresses and military camps (possibly similar to Roman castrums) were built, protecting trade routes and important strategic points. The military camps had a clear layout and were oriented according to the cardinal points. One of the main streets, Decumanus, ran from east to west, while Cardo ran from north to south. In the center of the camp were the headquarters and the commander's residence, characteristic of the Roman style of fortifications, with which the Dacians were in close contact.

3. Influence of Roman Culture

Burebista maintained close relations with Rome and adopted Roman military and administrative practices. His state actively developed its defensive structures using the advanced technologies of the time. Roman engineers, who fled to Dacia during the civil wars in Rome, may have influenced the construction of fortresses and camps, including those on the territory of present-day Chișinău. Although Burebista supported Pompey in his conflict with Caesar, Rome was still preparing to invade Dacia. However, Burebista was killed before the Romans could carry out their plans, temporarily sparing Dacia from Roman conquest.

4. The Role of Chișinău in the Fortification System

Although no specific archaeological data have been found about the settlements in the territory of present-day Chișinău during Burebista's time, based on the logic of the defensive system of that era, it can be assumed that there might have been military fortifications or settlements here that supported communications between other Dacian fortresses, such as Orheiul Vechi. The Chișinău region was located on important trade and military routes, making it a key point for protecting the state's borders.

5. Decline of Burebista's Reign and Its Consequences

After Burebista's assassination, his state fragmented into several parts, weakening centralized power in Dacia and making the territory more vulnerable to external invasions. However, the fortification system and infrastructure created by him continued to play an important role in the region until the Roman conquest in the 1st century AD. This period was also marked by cultural contacts with the Romans and other civilizations, influencing the subsequent development of settlements in the Chișinău area.

The Influence of the Goths (4th–5th centuries AD)

The Goths played a significant role in the history of Eastern Europe, especially in the 4th–5th centuries AD, when they migrated through the region, including the territory where Chișinău later emerged. This period was important for the development of local settlements, influencing their planning, fortifications, and cultural heritage.

1. Migration of the Goths and Their Influence on Local Settlements

In the 4th century, the Goths, divided into Ostrogoths and Visigoths, began migrating southward. They moved through territories that included present-day Moldova, influencing the local population, including the descendants of the Geto-Dacians and Roman colonists. Initially, they coexisted with the Roman Empire, participating in trade and partially integrating into the Roman system, but eventually came into conflict with Rome, leading to significant changes in the regions they controlled.

2. Architectural and Military Changes

Under the influence of the Goths, fortified settlements spread throughout the region, similar to Roman castrums, which the Goths adopted and adapted to their needs. The Goths, adopting Roman construction methods, created fortified settlements (oppida) using geometrically precise forms, such as rectangular or square perimeters with strong walls and towers. The planning of Gothic fortified settlements was often based on Roman principles: settlements included a central square, houses for the nobility, workshops, and warehouses. Public buildings, such as military commanders' residences, also held an important place. Gothic settlements were closely linked to trade routes, contributing to the development of economic centers in these territories.

3. Cultural and Military Interaction with the Local Population

In the territory of Moldova, including the Chișinău region, a stratified cultural interaction developed in the 4th–5th centuries between the local population (descendants of the Geto-Dacians, Roman colonists) and the Goths. The Goths adopted some features of Roman culture, particularly in the military and architectural fields, while also contributing their own customs and lifestyle. Archaeological finds, such as those at Orheiul Vechi, confirm the existence of fortified settlements that could be linked to the presence of the Goths. Such settlements probably also existed in the Chișinău area, where the Goths might have adapted local fortifications to their needs.

4. Social and Economic Aspects

Gothic settlements, located on important trade routes, served not only as military centers but also as major commercial hubs. During their rule, caravans with goods passed through the region, and towns turned into large craft centers, producing both military and household items. Trade took place with the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) as well as with other neighboring peoples, contributing to the economic development of settlements in these territories. Gothic leaders controlled the roads and protected merchants, which also strengthened economic stability in the region.

5. Influence on the Planning of Future Chișinău

The planning of Gothic settlements, with their clear fortifications and orientation on Roman models, may have influenced the later development of towns in this region. Gothic culture contributed to the integration of Roman and local traditions, leading to the creation of a hybrid architectural and social model. In the territory of future Chișinău, as in other Gothic settlements, Roman urban planning principles were likely used, such as clear division into residential, craft, and administrative areas. This foreshadowed the later development of Chișinău, which later became an important commercial and craft center.

6. The End of Gothic Influence in the Region

At the end of the 5th century, with the arrival of the Huns and other nomadic peoples, the influence of the Goths in the region began to wane. They either merged with the local population or migrated further west, leaving behind architectural and cultural traces. However, the fortified settlements created during their rule continued to be used in later eras, attesting to the lasting influence of the Goths on the architectural heritage of the region.

Conclusion

The period of Burebista's reign was an important stage in the history of the region where Chișinău later emerged. The influence of his policies on the creation of a strong defensive system and the interaction with Roman culture had a long-lasting impact on the development of settlements and infrastructure in this area. The defensive structures erected during Burebista's time laid the foundation for the future strategic importance of the region, which was maintained over the following centuries.

The 4th–5th centuries AD were a period of active Gothic influence on the territory where Chișinău later emerged. Their fortified settlements and planning, based on Roman models, contributed to the development of defensive and administrative structures in the region. Despite later migrations and invasions, Gothic heritage continued to influence the development of local settlements, which later became the foundation for the formation of medieval Chișinău.

The History of the Territory of Moldova: The Period of the 6th–12th Centuries

The period of the 6th–8th centuries AD in the territory of present-day Moldova, including the region of future Chișinău, was a time of significant migrations and cultural changes. During this period, the main influence on local settlements was exerted by Slavic tribes and the Avars. These migrations and cultural contacts influenced the structure of local settlements, including fortifications, social organization, and economic life.

1. Slavic Migrations and Their Influence on Settlements

Settlement of the Slavs: The Slavic tribes began actively moving south in the 6th century. Initially, they came to the region as nomadic groups but gradually began to settle, practicing agriculture and animal husbandry. The Slavs played a key role in replacing and assimilating earlier cultures, such as the Goths, who left the region after the Hunnic invasions.

Interaction with the Local Population: The Slavic tribes interacted with the remaining local populations, including the descendants of the Geto-Dacians and Roman colonists, adopting some of their culture and customs. This led to the creation of new cultural forms, based on the synthesis of local traditions and Slavic customs.

2. Influence of the Avars

The Avar Khaganate: In the 6th–8th centuries, the key influence on the region was exerted by the Avar Khaganate, which controlled the territory of Eastern and Central Europe. The Avars, being a nomadic people, frequently attacked sedentary Slavic and local settlements, collected tribute, and demanded military service from the Slavic tribes.

Forts and Military Fortifications: The Avars built forts and fortifications on the conquered territories, which could also influence the planning of local settlements. The Avars often used existing fortifications and developed them to control important territories and trade routes.

3. Fortifications and Settlement Structure

Development of New Settlements: Slavic settlements were usually located near rivers and other water sources, which corresponded to local traditions established during the Geto-Dacian and Roman periods. Slavic villages were more modest in size compared to Dacian or Roman towns, but they developed a system of agricultural fortifications and defensive settlements.

Fortification Elements: Under the influence of the Avars and other nomadic peoples, the Slavs fortified their settlements with earthworks, ditches, and wooden fortifications. These defensive structures were built around the main settlements, especially those located along important trade routes.

4. Economy and Crafts

Agriculture and Trade: The Slavs introduced developing agriculture to the region, which became the basis for their sedentarization. The main crops were wheat, barley, oats, and other cereals. This led to the expansion of rural settlements, which were located near rivers and other water sources.

Craftsmanship: Although the Slavs did not reach the high level of craftsmanship characteristic of the Romans, they developed primitive crafts such as blacksmithing and woodworking. Under the influence of the Avars, craftsmanship techniques from eastern areas may have entered the region, contributing to the development of new types of products, including simple metal and leather items.

5. Social and Cultural Organization

Slavic Community: Slavic settlements were organized as tribal communities, each led by elders or chiefs. Communal ownership of land played an important role, allowing for the efficient organization of agriculture and distribution of resources among community members.

Avar Influence on Social Structure: The Avars, as nomads and conquerors, could exert pressure on Slavic communities by demanding tribute and military service. This led to the emergence of military-administrative elements in the territory of future Chișinău and neighboring regions, where the Avars could establish representatives for control.

6. The Role of the Region as an Important Trade Hub

Trade Routes: The territory of Moldova, where Chișinău would later emerge, continued to be an important trade hub between the Balkans, the steppe, and the eastern part of Europe. The Slavs actively participated in trade, supplying agricultural products and other goods to the markets of neighboring regions.

Fortifications and Control of Trade Routes: The Avars controlled part of the trade routes and strategically important locations. This influenced the development of local settlements: they were built along these routes and served as points for trade and exchange of goods. The Avars maintained forts and garrisons at important nodal points, which strengthened their influence in the region.

7. Cultural Interaction

Fusion of Slavic and Avar Cultures: As a result of long coexistence with the Avars, the Slavic tribes adopted some elements of their culture, including in the fields of armament, troop organization, and settlement administration. Although the Avars remained a nomadic people, their influence on the settled Slavs was significant.

Religious Practices: While the Avars maintained their nomadic traditions and beliefs, the Slavs developed their own pagan religious practices, which included the worship of natural elements. Later, as the Slavic tribes began to come into contact with Byzantium and other Christian centers, these contacts led to the gradual introduction of Christian elements.

Conclusion for the 6th–8th Centuries

The period of the 6th–8th centuries AD was an important stage in the development of the territory where Chișinău would later emerge. The migrations of the Slavs and the influence of the Avars contributed to the formation of new settlements, fortified with earthworks and ditches. These settlements were located along important trade routes, which contributed to their economic development. The cultural interaction between the Slavs and the Avars, as well as with the local descendants of the Geto-Dacians, led to the formation of a unique socio-economic structure that influenced the further development of the region.

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The 9th–12th Centuries and the Influence of the Magyars

The period of the 9th–12th centuries AD in the territory of present-day Moldova, including the region of future Chișinău, was marked by significant changes related to the migrations of Slavic tribes, the penetration of Byzantine influence, and the appearance of new nomadic peoples, including the Magyars (Hungarians). These events influenced the economic and social development of the region, as well as its military strategy and fortifications.

1. Slavic Settlements and Their Development

The Slavs in the 9th–10th Centuries: By the 9th century, large Slavic settlements already existed in the territory of Moldova. The Slavs continued to lead a sedentary lifestyle, practicing agriculture, animal husbandry, and crafts. During this period, the Slavic tribes gradually transitioned to a more organized social structure, which was reflected in the development of their settlements.

Trade and Crafts: During the 9th–10th centuries AD, settlements in the territory of Moldova became important trade centers. The Slavs, establishing contacts with Byzantium and Kievan Rus, participated in trade operations, supplying agricultural products, furs, and crafted items.

Construction of Fortifications: Local Slavic communities began building fortified settlements, often on hills or near rivers, such as the Bâc River. These fortifications included wooden walls, earthworks, and ditches designed to protect against incursions by nomadic peoples and to strengthen local authority.

2. The Penetration of the Magyars into the Region

The Magyar Migration: In the 9th century, the Magyars (Hungarians) moved westward from the area of the Black Sea, passing through the steppe regions, including the territories of Moldova. The Magyars were a nomadic people, and along their route, they encountered local Slavic and Avar settlements, using them for temporary stops and resupplying resources.

Military Incursions by the Magyars: During the 9th–10th centuries, the Magyars conducted raids into Slavic and Byzantine territories. These military campaigns led to the destruction of some settlements in the region but also stimulated the fortification of local hillforts and defensive structures. In response to these threats, the Slavic tribes strengthened their defenses, which led to the construction of more complex fortifications and the organization of communities for collective defense.

Short-term Influence of the Magyars: Although the Magyars soon moved westward, founding their state in the territory of present-day Hungary, their migration left a mark on the history of the region. They contributed to military and cultural contacts between Eastern European and Central European tribes and peoples.

3. Development of Hillforts and Fortified Centers

Hillforts and Fortified Centers: In the 9th–10th centuries, large hillforts began to appear in the territory of Moldova. These settlements performed important defensive functions and were often located at the crossroads of trade routes. They were small fortified towns surrounded by earthworks and wooden walls, with a central square where the houses of nobles and storage facilities were located.

Trade and Economic Connections: Settlements in the territory of future Chișinău had economic connections with Byzantium, Kievan Rus, and Bulgaria. Slavic merchants actively used river routes for trade with neighboring regions, including eastern tribes and Byzantines. This contributed to economic development and population growth.

Cultural Contacts: During this period, cultural and religious contacts with Byzantium and Bulgaria intensified, leading to the gradual introduction of Christianity into the local Slavic communities. Although Christianity spread slowly, its influence gradually increased, especially among the nobility, preparing the ground for a later full conversion to the new religion.

4. Nomadic Tribes and Their Influence

The Pechenegs and Other Nomadic Tribes: In the 9th–11th centuries, after the departure of the Magyars, other nomadic peoples, such as the Pechenegs and later the Cumans, came to the territory of Moldova. These tribes controlled the steppe areas and often conducted raids on sedentary Slavic and Byzantine settlements.

Interaction with Nomads: The sedentary Slavic population of Moldova was forced to fortify their settlements and develop fortifications to defend against nomadic incursions. Some Slavic tribes formed alliances with the nomads or paid them tribute to maintain peace. This interaction also influenced the cultural life of the region, where elements of nomadic culture could penetrate, such as military-administrative methods and trade contacts.

5. Political and Administrative Changes

The First Principalities and the Influence of Byzantium and Kiev: In the 9th–10th centuries, the territory of Moldova came under the influence of various major powers, such as Byzantium and Kievan Rus. The Slavic tribes living in the territory of future Chișinău may have been vassals of these states, maintaining military and trade connections with them.

Formation of the First Principalities: During this period, the local aristocracy began to form, which could govern small principalities or hillforts. In the 9th–12th centuries, early forms of princely authority appeared in Moldova and neighboring areas, which eventually became the foundation for the formation of the Principality of Moldova.

6. Fortifications and Settlements in the 12th Century

Growth of Towns and Settlements: By the 12th century, the Slavic hillforts in the territory of Moldova were fortified and expanded. During this period, the first large settlements appeared, which later could have developed into more organized urban centers. Although written records about this region are scarce, archaeological data confirm the existence of fortified settlements, such as Old Orhei, which could have existed in the territory of future Chișinău.

Contacts with Byzantium and Kiev: By the 12th century, Byzantine influence on the region intensified, and local principalities maintained closer contacts with the Byzantine Empire. These contacts stimulated cultural exchange, including in the fields of religion and architecture.

Conclusion for the 9th–12th Centuries

The period of the 9th–12th centuries AD was a time of complex migratory and cultural processes in the territory of future Chișinău. The Magyars, passing through this region in the 9th century, left short-term but important traces, influencing the fortification of local settlements and interaction with neighboring peoples. During this period, other nomadic tribes, such as the Pechenegs, also came, leading to the development of fortifications and the adaptation of Slavic communities to new threats. The socio-economic and cultural development of the region, along with closer contacts with Byzantium and Kiev, laid the groundwork for the formation of principalities and early state formations in the territory of Moldova.

The Golden Horde Period in Moldova: 13th–14th Centuries

The period of the 13th–14th centuries in modern Moldova, including the future Chișinău, was marked by the domination of the Golden Horde. This period had a significant impact on the economy, administrative structure, and cultural development of the region. The important geographical position of the territory made it part of the control and trade system managed by the Golden Horde.

Golden Horde Domination in the Region

In the early 13th century, power over the territory of modern Moldova passed to the Golden Horde — a large state formation that emerged on the ruins of the Mongol Empire. The territories from the Black Sea to the Danube came under the control of the Horde, including the future Chișinău. The Horde's khans administered these territories through their representatives — baskaks, who oversaw tax collection and controlled important strategic points. The local population was obliged to pay tribute and support the Horde's administration, which determined the social and economic life of the region.

Tatar Settlements and Villages

On the territory of the future Chișinău, there were Tatar settlements. These settlements were located on the right bank of the Bâc River and served as important points of trade and defense. The Tatar settlements played both military and economic roles, providing accommodation for garrisons and collecting tribute, as well as being trade centers. In such settlements, there were caravanserais, mosques, and public baths, reflecting the typical infrastructure of the Horde's cities.

A particular importance was given to the burial place of prominent representatives of the Golden Horde, such as Akbash — one of the leaders of the Golden Horde, whose name translates from Tatar as "White Head." Akbash was buried in a mausoleum called Kesene. This mausoleum was located on an artificial mound on the left bank of the Bâc River. Kesene was a mausoleum surrounded by an earthen wall about 100 by 100 meters in size. It was oriented to the east, with the entrance facing Mecca, in accordance with Muslim traditions for constructing burial edifices.

Trade Routes and Economic Development

The territory of Moldova was located at the intersection of important trade routes connecting East and West. One of the main trade routes passed from the Black Sea through modern Moldova to Hungary and Poland. The Golden Horde controlled this route, collecting taxes and ensuring the security of trade. As a result, the settlements in the future Chișinău became important trade centers, where goods from East and West met. Silk, spices, metal products, and other goods were sold here, contributing to the economic development of the region.

Architecture and Urban Planning

In the Tatar settlements on the territory of the future Chișinău, there were caravanserais — large buildings for hosting and resting travelers, which also served as trade points. Near the main trade routes, these structures were often surrounded by defensive walls. There were also mosques and public baths in the settlements, which played an important role in community life and were an integral part of the culture of the Golden Horde.

Near the caravanserai, there were usually a mosque and the tents of the ulus leaders, and on an elevation — the mausoleum. Caravanserais and mosques were integral parts of the Tatar settlements, contributing to economic activity and supporting the cultural needs of the population.

Social and Administrative Structure

The administration of the region was carried out through the Horde's representatives, who controlled the collection of tribute from the local population. Local princes and nobility acted as intermediaries between the Horde's administration and the population, which helped maintain control over the territory. The region was distinguished by its ethnic diversity — there lived both Tatar-Mongol tribes and Slavs, Romanians, and descendants of the Geto-Dacians, which led to cultural exchanges but also to social tensions.

Decline of the Golden Horde and Consequences for the Region

In the 14th century, the Golden Horde began to weaken due to internal conflicts and pressure from the Timurids and other nomadic peoples. The influence of the Horde over modern Moldova gradually decreased, which allowed the formation of the independent Principality of Moldova. The fortifications and administrative structure created during the Golden Horde continued to be used by Moldovan rulers and played an important role in the further development of the region.

In 2018, archaeological excavations led by Mark Tkaciuk in the area of the eastern gates of the presumed "Târgul Chișinău" revealed data confirming the existence of a wealthy settlement in the 17th–18th centuries. These discoveries, including the fortress walls on Pushkin Hill, may attest to the long presence of Tatar settlements and the use of this territory under their control.

Conclusion

The Golden Horde period (13th–14th centuries) was an important stage in the history of the territory where Chișinău would later emerge. During this period, the region was under the control of a powerful empire, which favored the development of trade, crafts, and urban infrastructure. Despite the decline of the Golden Horde at the end of the 14th century, its legacy continued to influence the further development of Moldova and the formation of the independent Principality of Moldova.

The History of Chișinău in the 15th–17th Centuries

The period of the 15th–17th centuries represented a key stage in the history of the region where Chișinău would later emerge, during the formation and consolidation of the Principality of Moldavia. During this period, significant political, economic, and social changes took place on the territory of Moldavia, laying the foundations for the later development of Chișinău as an administrative and commercial center.

1. Formation and Consolidation of the Principality of Moldavia

Founding of the Principality: The Principality of Moldavia was founded in 1359 as an independent state, separated from the Kingdom of Hungary. During the 15th century, the principality consolidated its independence, actively resisting external threats, especially from the Ottoman Empire. Under the leadership of rulers such as Alexandru cel Bun (Alexander the Good) and Ștefan cel Mare (Stephen the Great), Moldavia developed its defense system, administrative structures, and expanded its influence.

The Role of Stephen the Great (1457–1504): One of the most influential Moldavian rulers, Stephen the Great, significantly strengthened the Principality of Moldavia. He built fortresses, supported the development of towns and rural areas. During this period, the first significant settlements may have appeared in the area of future Chișinău, serving a strategic role in controlling the routes leading to the capital of the principality, Suceava.

2. Chișinău as a Strategic and Administrative Point

First Mentions of Chișinău: The first documentary mention of Chișinău dates back to 1436, when the Moldavian rulers Iliaș and Stephen granted several land properties, including the settlement on the right bank of the Bâc River, to the logofăt (chancellor) Oancea. This settlement was practically an abandoned Tatar village, which had no official name at that time. It probably originated during the Golden Horde's rule and was part of a larger system of Tatar settlements, which served to control trade routes and collect taxes.

The Tatar Settlement on the Right Bank of the Bâc River: Before the appearance of Moldavian administrative structures, the settlement on the right bank of the Bâc River was used by the Tatars as one of the settlements of the Golden Horde. This settlement was not a residential town but a commercial-administrative point for Tatar garrisons and merchants passing through the region. By the time the territory was granted in 1436, the settlement was practically abandoned, due to the decline of the Golden Horde's influence in the region at the end of the 14th century — early 15th century. Most Tatar settlements had already fallen into decline by then, and the lands gradually came under the control of local feudal lords and rulers.

Akbașev Keshene — Landmark in the Area: An important element of the area was the tomb of a prominent Tatar commander, Akbaș. This burial, known as Keshene (or Kesene), was located on the left bank of the Bâc River and served as an orientational symbol. It represented a tumulus or mausoleum built on an elevation, visible from afar and serving as an important symbol in the area. The tomb of Akbaș was not a settlement or administrative center, but its importance lay in the fact that it marked the area and served as a landmark for merchants and military troops passing through the territory.

Granting of the Land to Chancellor Oancea: In 1436, the Moldavian rulers Iliaș and Stephen granted the land to Chancellor Oancea, including the territory of the former Tatar settlement on the right bank of the Bâc River. This represented the official transfer of the settlement under the administration of Moldavian feudal lords, symbolizing the end of Tatar domination and the beginning of Moldavian colonization of these lands. After the transfer of the land, the settlement began to develop within the Principality of Moldavia. Gradually, it gained a new function as a strategic point on the trade route connecting the center of the principality with the southern and eastern territories. The lands around the settlement were suitable for agriculture and animal husbandry, which favored its growth.

Strategic Position: The positioning of Chișinău on the Bâc River and its proximity to major trade routes made it an important hub. During the 15th–17th centuries, the settlement gradually strengthened and developed. Chișinău was located at the crossroads of roads, connecting it with important cities of the region, such as Orhei, Bender, and Iași, the capital of the Principality of Moldavia.

3. Development of Administrative and Military Structures

Strengthening of Towns: In the 15th–16th centuries, the Principality of Moldavia actively built fortresses and defensive structures to protect against nomadic invasions and threats from the Ottoman Empire and Poland. Chișinău, like other settlements, played a role in this defensive system. Orders from the rulers included building fortifications and maintaining local armies to protect key points along the roads.

The Pârcălab’s House and Local Administrative Centers: During this period, local administrative structures began to form. Pârcălabi (district administrators) were appointed to control defense and tax collection. In Chișinău, there may have been a pârcălab's house — a small fortified center where local administration was located.

4. Influence of the Ottoman Empire

Vassal Dependence on the Ottoman Empire: At the end of the 15th century, Moldavia came under vassal dependence on the Ottoman Empire. Moldavian rulers were obliged to pay tribute and provide military resources to the Ottomans. In exchange, the principality retained internal autonomy, which allowed it to develop its internal administrative and social structures, including Chișinău.

Ottoman Influence on Architecture and Trade: Under the influence of the Ottoman Empire, Turkish architecture developed in the towns of Moldavia. Chișinău also received some elements of Ottoman architectural style. Turkish merchants and craftsmen began to appear in the town, bringing with them new cultural and commercial practices.

5. Economic Development

Crafts and Trade: In the 16th–17th centuries, Chișinău became an important center for trade and crafts. Craftsmen, traders, and farmers worked here, contributing to population growth and the improvement of urban infrastructure. The town’s bazaars and markets became places where merchants from different regions, including the Ottoman Empire, Wallachia, and Poland, gathered.

Chișinău’s Role in the Regional Economy: Chișinău began to play an important role in the economic life of the principality due to its location at the crossroads of trade routes. Agriculture remained the basis of the region’s economy, but crafts such as blacksmithing, pottery production, and leatherworking began to develop actively. In the town, workshops produced goods for local consumption and for trade with neighboring regions.

6. Social and Cultural Changes

Population Growth and Social Structure: During the 15th–17th centuries, Chișinău's population gradually increased. The settlement developed from a small village into a town with a growing population of craftsmen, traders, and farmers. The social structure included peasants, craftsmen, merchants, and representatives of the local nobility, reflecting the traditional social hierarchies of the Principality of Moldavia.

Cultural Diversity: Under the influence of the Ottoman Empire, as well as commercial and cultural contacts with neighboring states, a multinational society formed in Chișinău. Moldavians, Jews, Armenians, and Greeks lived here, each contributing to the cultural and economic development of the town. This cultural diversity became one of the defining features of Chișinău and the region as a whole.

7. Defense and Military Conflicts

Attacks and Raids: Chișinău, like other settlements of the principality, was subjected to attacks by nomads and armies of neighboring states. These threats required the town to maintain defensive structures and mobilize the local population to defend the settlement.

Sieges and Conflicts with Poland and the Ottomans: In the 16th and 17th centuries, Moldavia became the scene of numerous wars and conflicts, including with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire. Chișinău was located on the routes used by armies and often served as a wintering or camping site for troops, which contributed to its strengthening and importance in the principality's defensive system.

8. Importance for Chișinău’s Future Development

Formation of an Administrative Center: By the end of the 17th century, Chișinău had become an important administrative and commercial center, preparing it for further development in the 18th century, when it began to grow actively and become an important town of the Principality of Moldavia.

Foundation of Market and Administrative Infrastructure: It was during this period that the foundations of urban planning were laid, which continued to develop in the following centuries. Bazaars, craft quarters, and administrative buildings became an integral part of the urban infrastructure.

Conclusion

The 15th–17th centuries were an important stage in the formation of Chișinău as a key point in the structure of the Principality of Moldavia. The strategic positioning of the town at the crossroads of trade routes, its role as a defensive and administrative center, and its economic development laid the foundations for its further growth and transformation into one of the most important towns in the region.

The 17th Century: Consolidation of Chișinău as a Commercial and Craft Center

In the 17th century, Chișinău began transforming from a small settlement into an important regional commercial and craft center. This period was marked by the growing economic importance of the city, population growth, and increased influence of external powers such as the Ottoman Empire and Poland. Chișinău became a strategically important point for trade and crafts, as well as a place where important infrastructure for the principality was developed.

Consolidation of Chișinău's Role in Trade

Commercial Hub at the Intersection of Routes: Chișinău was located at an important intersection of trade routes that connected the northern and southern regions of Eastern Europe, as well as the western and eastern parts of the region. It was on the road between Wallachia and Poland and Lithuania, making it a key point for transit trade. Merchants from the Ottoman Empire, Wallachia, Poland, and other states used this point for trading goods such as grain, wine, salt, textiles, and metals.

Development of Bazaars: In the 17th century, regular bazaars and fairs began to form in Chișinău, where goods were exchanged. The city's markets became centers of economic life, where merchants and craftsmen met to sell and buy products. The bazaars were located in the city center and became one of its characteristic elements. They contributed to strengthening economic ties between different regions of the Principality of Moldavia and neighboring territories.

Development of Craft Production

Growth of Craftsmanship: With the growing commercial importance of the city, craft production began to actively develop in Chișinău. Craftsmen produced goods that were in demand in local markets and were exported outside the region. The most widespread types of crafts were blacksmithing, weaving, pottery, leatherworking, and jewelry making.

Craft Districts: By the 17th century, specialized craft districts began to form in Chișinău, where craftsmen lived and worked. These areas were usually located near bazaars and trade routes. Craft guilds played an important role in urban life, and each district was organized by type of craft, with craftsmen of the same trade concentrated in one area.

The Multinational Character of the City

Influx of Different Peoples: In the 17th century, Chișinău became a multinational city. Moldovans, Jews, Armenians, Greeks, as well as merchants and craftsmen from the Ottoman Empire and other states lived there. This diversity contributed to the development of trade, crafts, and cultural contacts.

Role of the Jewish Community: Jews played an important role in the development of trade and craft production in Chișinău. They were involved in trade, money exchange, and crafts such as jewelry making and leatherworking. The Jewish community typically concentrated in a separate district of the city and had its own synagogues and schools.

Influence of the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Rule and Vassal Dependence: In the 17th century, Chișinău, as part of the Principality of Moldavia, was under vassal dependence of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans maintained order and control over trade routes, which contributed to the development of trade in the region. In exchange for tribute, Moldavia retained its autonomy, allowing the development of the internal economy and maintaining trade relations with the Ottoman Empire.

Cultural Influence of the Ottomans: During this period, Ottoman cultural influence could be observed in Chișinău in architecture, trade, and public institutions. Ottoman merchants and craftsmen were frequent guests at the bazaars in Chișinău, bringing goods and traditions from the Ottoman Empire.

Urban Infrastructure and Planning

Formation of Urban Infrastructure: In the 17th century, Chișinău began to acquire a more regular layout. The city began to develop around two main centers: the commercial and the administrative. In the center was the bazaar, surrounded by craft districts and residential areas. Administrative buildings, such as the residences of pârcălabi (local administrators) and religious buildings, were located closer to elevated areas, providing them with a strategic position.

Construction of Churches and Fortifications: During this period, churches and fortifications began to be built in Chișinău. One of the oldest preserved churches is the Mazarache Church, which was built on a hill in the 17th century and served not only a religious function but also a defensive one. The city's churches were also important social and cultural centers.

Formation of Chișinău's Urban Infrastructure in the 17th Century

The First Wooden Church and the Burial of Nobility

The first church in Chișinău, built in the 16th century, was made of wood. It was located in the area of the current maternity hospital and served not only as a religious but also as a social center. Next to it was a cemetery where representatives of the city's nobility were buried. Archaeological excavations carried out in the area of this church discovered dense burials, confirming the existence of a necropolis of the city's nobility here.

The results of the excavations show that after the church was built and the first burials appeared, the church continued to play an essential role in the life of the city until the mid-17th century, when it was destroyed and burned. On the site of the destroyed church and the abandoned cemetery, layers of silt gradually accumulated, contributing to the "hiding" of the necropolis remains.

Saint Nicholas Church

In 1642, the Moldavian ruler Vasile Lupu ordered the construction of a new church on the site of the old wooden one — Saint Nicholas Church, also known as the Domnească Church. This new stone church became an important religious and social center of the city.

Saint Nicholas Church was located near the first wooden church and next to the commercial square, which by then had already become the central place of the city. The bazaar was situated right next to the church, making this place a center of both religious and economic life. The cemetery of the nobility continued to be located on the church's grounds.

Trușeni Settlement

In the 17th century, the Trușeni settlement existed in the territory near Chișinău. This settlement was on the Buiucani estate but had its own administration and existed separately from the domains of Chișinău and Buiucani.

Trușeni was an independent settlement, reflecting the political and economic structure of the region, where settlements sometimes existed as autonomous units despite administrative affiliation to larger estates.

Wintering of Armies in Chișinău

In the mid-17th century, Chișinău became an important place for hosting armies. It is known that the army of Radu Mihnea Vodă wintered in Chișinău, and later, in 1672, the army of Ahmet Pasha was stationed here.

The wintering of armies in Chișinău serves as indirect evidence that by then the city already had significant strategic importance. This indicates the existence of developed infrastructure capable of supporting the accommodation of large military formations, which also contributed to strengthening Chișinău's economic status as a center of trade and crafts.

Administrative Consolidation and City Expansion

In 1661-1662, the ruler Eustratie Dabija annexed Vistiernăceni to Chișinău, and later Gheorghe Duca annexed Gecioanii, contributing to the region's economic growth. Chișinău also became the center of two ținuturi (districts) — Orhei and Lăpușna, where the residences of two pârcălabi (administrators) were established. The city became the site of the Vama Domnească (the princely customs house), making it an important trade hub. After the suppression of the 1671 rebellion, during which Gheorghe Duca temporarily fled to Poland, the establishment of the two pârcălabi and the placement of the customs house after Duca's return to power were intended to prevent similar rebellions in the future.

Travelers' Accounts

Evliya Çelebi visited Chișinău in the 1660s and described it as a well-organized city with districts of craftsmen and merchants, houses covered with thatch, and numerous shops. Çelebi mentioned 17 churches, which included not only places of worship but also likely small cemetery chapels and wayside crosses. He also used the term "Nesterol," which was probably a mistaken mention of the Dniester River. Most likely, it referred to the Bâc River, which flowed through Chișinău.

Conclusion and Consequences for Future Development

Formation of the City as a Center: In the 17th century, Chișinău consolidated its position as a commercial and craft center. Its strategic and economic importance during this period prepared it for further growth in the 18th and 19th centuries. The development of bazaars, crafts, and trade links laid the foundation for Chișinău's transformation into a key city in the region. The multinational character of the city, administrative consolidation, and infrastructure development contributed to creating a dynamic urban environment that ensured stable growth and prosperity.

Thus, the 17th century represented an important stage in Chișinău's history, when the city began to acquire the characteristics of an important commercial, craft, and administrative center. Its strategic position, multinational structure, and role in regional trade paved the way for its future economic and cultural development.

The History of Urban Development in Chișinău in the 19th Century

Integration into the Russian Empire

The general plan of Chișinău from 1800 was an important milestone in the urban development of the city. This plan was submitted for approval to the Divan of Moldova (the Princely Council) and, in fact, became the first known general plan of the city.

Main Features of the 1800 Plan

• Fortified Core: The highest point of the terrain was planned to host a fortress with a castle and a church, which was typical of medieval towns. The city had fortifications that met the defensive needs of the time.

• Outer City (City Enclosure): Residential neighborhoods were situated around the fortress, arranged in a horseshoe shape. This allowed the city to be protected without the need to build fortification walls around the entire perimeter, which was typical for cities in Transylvania, such as Biertan.

• Numerous Estates: The 1800 plan took into account the boundaries of four estates — Chișinău, Buiucani, Visternecean, and Ghețioani. This effectively created a municipality that included all these territories. The boundaries of the city were established at the end of the 17th century, during the reign of Gheorghe Duca.

• Center Evolution: According to this plan, the city center was moved to new areas. It was proposed to build a new church in place of the destroyed one, which laid the foundation for the future squares and streets of the city.

Changes After the 1802 Earthquake

The implementation of the plan was interrupted by the 1802 earthquake, which severely damaged the city and led to the cancellation of many planned changes. Despite the corrections, the main ideas of city development were preserved. The author of the general plan could have been a local architect or surveyor working under the direction of Moldovan authorities. However, given the high accuracy of the plan, some researchers suggest that it might have been created under the influence of European urban traditions. The plan included elements of a fortified structure typical of medieval towns and followed the traditions of Romanian and Transylvanian towns, with geometric features indicating the influence of European urban planning standards.

Reconstruction of Chișinău After the Earthquake

After the devastating earthquake of 1802, which almost completely destroyed Chișinău, the city faced significant changes. The earthquake destroyed all the city churches except the Church of Saints Constantine and Helena, necessitating major reconstruction. A special decree was issued for the reconstruction of the city, and between 1803 and 1806 new buildings began to be constructed, including the Church of Saint Elijah and the market around it.

During this period (1802-1806), new commercial squares were formed as the old ones lay in ruins. The construction of the Armenian church and the Donici castle (later known as the Inzov residence) also began. The situation was complicated by the Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812), when Chișinău was once again under Russian military administration. Despite this, the city continued to be rebuilt, becoming an important place for new immigrants, especially Jews, attracted by the legislative changes of Alexander I that improved their situation.

Reconstruction of Churches and Public Buildings

• Church of Saints Constantine and Helena: The only church that withstood the 1802 earthquake.

• Archangel Church (Old Cathedral): One of the first churches built after the earthquake, between 1803-1806. It was located near the Metropolis.

• Armenian Church of the Holy Virgin: Construction began in 1804 and was completed in 1806. The Armenian community actively participated in the city's reconstruction.

• Church of Saint Elijah: Construction began in 1806, and a new commercial square formed around it. The works were delayed, probably due to a shortage of builders occupied with other projects.

Despite the earthquake and the Russo-Turkish War, the city was actively rebuilt, and churches played an essential role in the revival of Chișinău as a religious and administrative center. Archaeological excavations carried out at the site of the destroyed Church of Archangels Michael and Gabriel revealed graves of 17th-century nobility beneath the bell tower foundations, indicating that the church built in the early 19th century was erected on the site of an older religious building — probably the Church of Saint Nicholas, built during the reign of Vasile Lupu in the mid-17th century.

The Old Market

At the beginning of the 19th century, with the reconstruction of Chișinău after the 1802 earthquake, the Old Market took an important place in the life of the city. It was formed between 1803 and 1812, against the background of the city's reconstruction, and over time became one of the essential commercial squares of Chișinău. In the area of the Old Market, commercial rows and shops were strategically built, following the structure of commercial streets in old cities, such as Cardo Maximus in Jerusalem.

The New Stage of Chișinău's Development

After incorporation into the Russian Empire in 1812, a new stage began in the development of Chișinău. The 1817 general plan, developed under the leadership of William Hastie, laid the foundations for radical changes in the urban planning of the city. The plan was based on ideas of creating wide, modern streets and new neighborhoods, with the goal of ensuring rapid population growth to 100,000 inhabitants.

Infrastructure Changes

Infrastructure changes included the layout of new streets and the creation of key administrative buildings. One of the central buildings was the metropolitan residence, whose construction began in 1814. The foundation stone of the new cathedral was also laid, and the square in front of it was transformed into a parade square, which strengthened Chișinău's status as an administrative center. In 1818, the city was designated the capital of Bessarabia, a status confirmed by Alexander I through the signing of the Statute for the Establishment of the Bessarabia Region.

The 1817 general plan envisaged creating a dual structure for the city, with a division between the New Market and the New Cathedral, as well as forming a governor's residence in a separate part of the city. After the destruction caused by the 1802 earthquake and the wars of the late 18th — early 19th century, the street network of Chișinău was in a chaotic state. In 1812, when the city became part of the Russian Empire, the street network consisted of randomly built plots, especially in the center, where commercial and administrative buildings had previously been located. Most of the old block structure was destroyed, and the city was practically rebuilt from scratch.

Work on regularizing the street network began with the implementation of the 1817 general plan, developed by William Hastie, which established new boundaries for streets and blocks, giving the city a geometric structure. The process of regularizing and putting the streets in clearer order continued until the mid-19th century. The last mentions of the completion of this process are found in travelers' accounts describing "a headless city" with a dual structure (the Old Cathedral and the Old Market). Despite regularization, Chișinău retained its historical features, and the accounts indicate that by the mid-19th century, the central part of the city was still completing its reorganization.

Development of Chișinău in the 19th Century: Infrastructural and Administrative Changes

After Chișinău became part of the Russian Empire and began its redevelopment at the beginning of the 19th century, significant infrastructural changes took place. As part of the 1817 general plan, developed under the leadership of William Heste, a new order of urban construction was established. The main goal of the plan was to organize the destroyed neighborhoods and expand the street network, creating a modern structure for the city.

Major Infrastructural Changes

1. Creation of New Streets
   A network of wide streets was introduced, such as Moscow Street, which became one of the city's main axes. A perpendicular axis, called Decumanus Maximus, passed through the city's main square, transforming it into a central parade ground.

2. Construction of Administrative Buildings
   The plan included the establishment of the Metropolitan House and the New Cathedral, giving Chișinău a new appearance as the administrative center of Bessarabia. These buildings became symbols of the restoration and strengthening of the city's role as the capital of the region.

3. Public Spaces and Marketplaces
   A new square was created in front of the Cathedral, which became an important public space. Additionally, a New Bazaar was organized, which over time became a key place for trade and economic activity in the city.

These changes allowed Chișinău to transform from a ruined settlement into a modern administrative center with a well-developed street network and infrastructure, laying the foundation for its further growth in the 19th century.

Growth of Chișinău as an Administrative Center

After becoming part of the Russian Empire in 1812, Chișinău began to grow rapidly and develop as the administrative center of Bessarabia. One of the key moments was Alexander I's decision in 1818, during his visit to the city, to sign a decree granting Chișinău the special status of the capital of the Bessarabia region.

Key Factors of Growth

1. The 1817 General Plan
   The general plan, developed with the participation of William Heste, laid the foundations for regular construction and street expansion, as well as created conditions for the placement of government and public buildings.

2. New Administrative Buildings
   Between 1813 and 1817, important buildings were constructed, such as the Metropolitan House, the municipal hospital, the public garden, and other facilities, which reinforced the city's role as the main administrative center of Bessarabia.

3. Strategic Location
   Chișinău, located at the intersection of trade and military routes, became an important base for Russian troops in the region, which also contributed to its transformation into a capital. The city was relatively close to the border with Turkey, an important aspect for the Russian Empire in the context of possible wars in the Balkans.

4. Historical Significance
   In the 17th century, Chișinău already had the status of the center of two ținuturi (districts), laying the foundation for its importance as an administrative point. The city housed the Domnească Customs and the residences of pârcălabi (local officials).

5. Military Base
   Chișinău had already been used as a temporary military base during the Russo-Turkish wars, and after the annexation of Bessarabia by the Russian Empire, the need arose to create a permanent base in this territory. During the war of 1770-1774, as well as in subsequent campaigns (1787-1791), Chișinău was used as a place for warehouses and supply bases, where the Russian army stationed troops for the winter.

6. Metropolitan Gavriil Bănulescu-Bodoni
   Metropolitan Gavriil played an important role in the selection of Chișinău, as he moved the center of the Bessarabian Diocese here. This religious and cultural center attracted the attention of the Russian authorities and contributed to the establishment of Chișinău as the capital.

7. Support from Alexander I
   Alexander I personally visited Chișinău in 1818 and confirmed it as the capital of Bessarabia, emphasizing the importance of the city for the imperial administration.

Conclusion

Thus, infrastructural changes, new projects, and the political decision to grant the city the status of capital allowed Chișinău to establish itself as the administrative and economic center of Bessarabia.

Chișinău: The Transformation of the City within the Russian Empire

Important Military Base and Administrative Center

After the annexation of Bessarabia by the Russian Empire in 1812, Chișinău gained significant importance as a military base for operations in the Balkans. The advantageous geographical position of the city, located close to the border with Turkey, gave it an essential role as a center for the supply and accommodation of troops. The city developed actively to meet military needs, including the construction of new barracks and warehouses for hosting the army during winter. These warehouses provided the necessary supplies, including food, weapons, and equipment, making Chișinău a strategically important point for preparing and carrying out military operations. Hosting troops in the city also contributed to economic growth, as it ensured a constant demand for goods and services.

The new city plan, approved in 1817, established central streets and squares that reflected the structure of a military camp. This highlighted the strategic importance of Chișinău as a military base. However, the development of the city was not limited to the military aspect. Decrees from Russian emperors contributed to the population growth and the strengthening of the region's economic and social infrastructure. The appearance of new central streets and squares also led to the expansion of residential neighborhoods and the growth of urban households, which in turn favored the increase in the number of craftsmen and traders.

Administrative and Economic Development

In 1818, a decree by Alexander I granted Chișinău the status of administrative center of Bessarabia, opening the city to immigration and transforming it into an important political and economic hub. At the same time, the Regulation on the Organization of Jews from 1804 granted Jews equal rights and protection, although it required them to move from villages to cities. This contributed to the significant growth of the Jewish community in Chișinău, especially among craftsmen and traders. The Jewish community actively participated in the development of the city's economy by opening new shops, workshops, and commercial enterprises, which contributed to the economic prosperity of the city.

In 1839, Nicholas I issued a decree granting ten-year tax exemptions to merchants and craftsmen who built houses and commercial buildings in Chișinău. According to this decree, all those who built houses or commercial buildings were exempted from paying taxes for ten years (from 1840 to 1850), which applied to both locals and merchants and entrepreneurs from other areas. These measures stimulated the development of urban infrastructure and the growth of entrepreneurial activity. The decree also allowed the use of real estate as collateral and replaced the obligation to accommodate troops with monetary contributions, creating favorable conditions for investment and city development. The construction of residential houses and other commercial buildings contributed to the active development of the city's central areas, consolidating the economy and attracting both local and foreign merchants. These initiatives helped create a developed urban infrastructure, including new rows of shops, warehouses, and stores, turning Chișinău into an important center of commercial activity.

Economic and Demographic Growth

The economic and demographic growth of Chișinău within the Russian Empire at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century was significant and was characterized by several key factors. After the annexation of Bessarabia by the Russian Empire in 1812, Chișinău began to develop as the administrative and commercial center of the region. An important impetus for its development was the construction of roads and railway infrastructure, which strengthened its connections with other cities in Russia and Europe. The city became an important intersection point for trade routes, attracting both entrepreneurs and investors. By the beginning of the 20th century, both small and large enterprises, as well as artisanal workshops and commercial establishments, were developing in Chișinău. The development of trade and industry contributed to increasing the income of the city's inhabitants and to the consolidation of the economy as a whole.

In the 19th century, Chișinău experienced rapid population growth. In the first half of the century, the city's population was relatively small—about 15-17 thousand people. However, by the end of the century, due to economic development and migration, the number of inhabitants increased significantly. In 1863, the city had 94 thousand inhabitants, and by the beginning of the 20th century, the population exceeded 100 thousand. Population growth was linked to the development of infrastructure, trade, and the influx of population from other regions of the Russian Empire and emigration. Particularly notable was the influx of Jews seeking refuge from pogroms and persecution in other regions. This contributed to the strengthening of cultural diversity and the dynamic development of urban life.

Urban Reforms and Infrastructure Development

The general plans of the city, developed by Russian architects, actively contributed to its urbanization. In 1817, the first reconstruction plan of Chișinău was approved, which included widening streets and building new neighborhoods. These projects transformed Chișinău into a more convenient city for trade and the attraction of new residents. The development of the city was accompanied by the active construction of public buildings, churches, schools, and administrative institutions. During the implementation of these plans, new squares appeared, and green areas were created, making the city more attractive for living and working. In subsequent years, another general plan was implemented in 1834, which further contributed to the growth and modernization of urban infrastructure.

Social Changes and Cultural Development

Social changes and the development of urban infrastructure in Chișinău at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century were closely linked to economic growth and population increase. During this period, Chișinău transformed into an important administrative and cultural center of Bessarabia within the Russian Empire. By the end of the 19th century, the city experienced rapid population growth, especially due to the Jewish community, which became dominant in Chișinău. In 1812, the city's population was only about 5-7 thousand people, but by the mid-19th century, it had grown to 94 thousand. This rapid growth was driven by migration from other parts of the Russian Empire, including Jewish pogroms in other regions, which made Chișinău an important center of Jewish life in the region. The social structure of the city began to change: with the growth of industry and trade, a new class of merchants and entrepreneurs emerged in the city. Additionally, the educational system developed significantly, with new educational institutions opening in the city to provide training for qualified personnel for the growing economy.

Special attention during this period was given to improving urban infrastructure. The elaboration and implementation of general development plans for Chișinău in 1817 and 1834 ensured a regular street network and the growth of new neighborhoods in the city. A new central square was created, where public buildings, including government institutions, schools, and hospitals, were constructed. Roads were also extended, improving transport connections both within the city and with other regions. At the beginning of the 20th century, new industrial enterprises, such as breweries and textile factories, appeared in Chișinău, contributing to the growth of the urban economy and the improvement of residents' lives. Additionally, new bridges, water supply, and sewerage systems were built, significantly improving the quality of life and sanitary conditions in the city.

Construction of Public Buildings and Formation of New Squares

The construction of public buildings and the formation of new squares in Chișinău took place within the framework of urban reforms of the 19th century, especially after the integration of the city into the Russian Empire. An important stage was the construction of several key public facilities. As early as 1814, the construction of the central square began with the erection of the Metropolis building. Between 1823 and 1825, the Governor's House was built, which became an important element of the new administrative center of the city. During this period, institutions such as schools and hospitals were also established, and the number of public spaces increased through projects like the Public Garden (1818). The Public Garden became a favorite place for relaxation for the residents and a symbol of the new urban culture, bringing European influences to the urban environment.

In 1825, a new commercial square—New Bazaar—was created, stimulating the development of trade in the city. This square, along with Cathedral Square and other public spaces, became an important element in the formation of the new urban infrastructure. Residential neighborhoods formed around these public buildings, contributing to the complex development of the urban environment. Authorities supported active construction by providing incentives to those who built new houses and public buildings. In 1839, tax exemptions were offered to merchants engaged in construction, which encouraged active construction and urban infrastructure development. This led to the rapid growth of urban construction, the creation of new residential neighborhoods, and the development of trade and public service networks. The number of schools and cultural institutions also increased significantly, contributing to the formation of an educated and cultured society.

Conclusion: Transformation into an Important Regional Center

Thus, due to a well-thought-out state policy, Chișinău, by the mid-19th century, became an important administrative, commercial, and military center of the region, attracting both craftsmen and merchants as well as military specialists. The stages of its development reflect a complex intertwining of strategic, economic, and social factors that allowed the city to occupy an important place on the map of Bessarabia. In the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, Chișinău transformed from a small town into a major regional center with developed trade, industry, and a significantly increased population. The city continued to attract new residents due to its opportunities for economic growth and improved quality of life. Chișinău gradually transformed into an important cultural and economic center, combining a rich history, economic prosperity, and an active social life.